Homer Bezaleel Hulbert (1863-1949)
Homer Bezaleel Hulbert was an American missionary, educator, scholar, and passionate advocate for Korea, whose pioneering efforts in promoting Korean culture, language, and history played a crucial role in reshaping the global understanding of the Korean people during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His lifelong commitment to Korea’s independence and the dissemination of Korean heritage made him a key figure in both Korea’s intellectual history and its struggle for sovereignty.
Arrival in Korea and Early Contributions (1886–1889)
Hulbert arrived in Korea in 1886 and began his mission work at the Yukyong Gongwon (육영공원), a government school where he worked as a teacher. It was during this time that he began to immerse himself in the study of the Korean language, history, and culture, laying the foundation for his long-term commitment to promoting Korea to the world. In 1889, Hulbert made a groundbreaking contribution by publishing an article titled “Korean Language” in the New York Tribune. This was the first time that the excellence of the Korean language and its unique script, Hangul, were showcased to a global audience, marking a significant moment in the history of Korean linguistic advocacy.
Pioneering Educational and Cultural Contributions (1891–1896)
In 1891, Hulbert authored Saminpilji (사민필지), the first textbook written in Hangul, which helped pave the way for the popularization of the Korean writing system in education. Hulbert’s dedication to Korean education also led him to play a vital role in the creation of The Independent (Dongnip Sinmun 독립신문), Korea’s first newspaper printed in Hangul. Hulbert’s editorial work on the English-language edition of the newspaper further expanded Korea’s reach to the international community, allowing the world to hear Korea’s voice in global affairs.
Hulbert’s cultural advocacy continued in 1896 when he adapted Arirang, the iconic Korean folk song, into Western musical notation, bringing the traditional Korean melody to the attention of a wider audience around the world. His efforts were a significant contribution to global appreciation of Korea’s rich cultural heritage.
International Advocacy and Scholarly Work (1899–1905)
In 1899, Hulbert contributed an important article to Harper’s Monthly, in which he introduced Korea’s illustrious history and cultural achievements to Western readers. He highlighted Korea’s major inventions, such as the creation of Hunminjeongeum (훈민정음, the Korean script), the turtle ship (Geobukseon), metal movable type, suspension bridges, and the Bigakjincheonroe (비격진천뢰, an early rocket weapon), presenting them as Korea’s contributions to world civilization.
In 1903, Hulbert made another scholarly contribution when he translated the Hunminjeongeum Haerye (훈민정음 해례), the explanatory preface of the Korean script, into English. This was an effort to promote Hangul as an advanced and practical language superior to English for public discourse, a statement he made in his publication in The Korean Review.
Hulbert’s most monumental work came in 1905 with the publication of his book The History of Korea. This comprehensive history, covering the period from the legendary foundation of the Korean nation by Dangun to the reign of Emperor Gojong, was the first detailed account of Korean history written in English and served to introduce the global audience to the depth of Korea’s cultural and historical narrative.
Combatting Misconceptions and Promoting Korean Independence (1882–1907)
A strong advocate for the correction of distorted perceptions of Korea, Hulbert took on the task of correcting Western misconceptions about Korea. In 1882, he publicly criticized Griffith’s book Hermit Nation, which misrepresented Korea’s history and culture. Hulbert contended that Griffith had written about Korea without ever visiting the country and had been unduly influenced by Japanese sources. Hulbert worked tirelessly to rectify these inaccuracies and to provide a more accurate portrayal of Korea.
In 1885, he also took issue with Percy Lowell’s depiction of Korea as the “Country of the Morning Calm.” Hulbert argued that Korea was not a passive, isolated nation but rather a vibrant and dynamic country deserving of a more dignified portrayal, calling it “the beautiful morning with light shining upon it.”
In 1902, Hulbert responded to a derogatory article in New England Magazine, which had referred to Korea as a “dwarf empire.” He published a rebuttal, stating that the piece falsely portrayed the Korean people as primitive and intellectually inferior. Hulbert called on the authors of such articles to visit Korea and see for themselves the true nature of the country.
Advocacy for Korean Sovereignty and Global Recognition (1905–1907)
Hulbert’s commitment to Korea’s sovereignty became even more apparent in 1905, when he was sent as a special envoy to the United States by the Korean Empire to protest the Eulsa Treaty (을사늑약). This treaty, signed under coercion, effectively turned Korea into a protectorate of Japan. Hulbert passionately argued that the treaty was invalid and that Korea’s independence had to be restored.
In 1907, Hulbert continued his advocacy for Korea’s independence by attending the Hague Peace Conference in the Netherlands as part of a diplomatic mission. There, he spoke out against Japan’s invasion of Korea and sought to raise global awareness of Japan’s aggression toward Korea, galvanizing international support for Korea’s independence.
Commitment to Korean Independence (1890s–1949)
For nearly 38 years, Hulbert remained dedicated to the cause of Korean independence, working to raise awareness of Korea’s plight around the world. His unwavering commitment to the Korean people was evident in his statement: “I will fight for Korea’s independence until the day I die.” He became a staunch critic of the Japanese imperialist narrative that sought to obscure Korea’s rightful place in history.
Throughout his career, Hulbert published more than 20 books and over 300 essays, many of which challenged Western stereotypes about Korea and highlighted its rich cultural, historical, and technological achievements. He was a tireless advocate for the Korean people and their right to self-determination, both through his scholarly work and through his diplomatic efforts.
Legacy and Final Wishes (1949)
Homer Bezaleel Hulbert passed away in 1949, leaving behind a profound legacy as one of Korea’s most devoted foreign advocates. In his will, he expressed a deep desire to be buried not in Westminster Abbey but in Korean soil, symbolizing his lifelong devotion to the country he had championed so fervently. His contributions to Korean scholarship, his tireless advocacy for Korean independence, and his efforts to correct the distorted narratives about Korea left an indelible mark on the history of the nation. Hulbert remains one of the most significant foreign figures in Korea’s modern history, remembered for his unshakable commitment to the Korean people and their culture.
Lee Dae Wi (1878-1928)
Lee Dae-Wi was a prominent independence activist and community leader among the Korean diaspora in the United States, who dedicated his life to strengthening the foundation of the Korean American community, fostering patriotism, and actively participating in the independence movement for Korea. He is remembered for his significant contributions to both the Korean independence struggle and the establishment of a thriving Korean American community in North America.
Early Life and Education (1878–1903)
Lee Dae-Wi was born in 1878 in Kangseo, Pyongan Province, in what is now North Korea. He completed his secondary education in Pyongyang before traveling to the United States in 1903 to pursue further studies. His journey to America marked the beginning of his deep involvement in the Korean independence movement and his role in organizing and leading the Korean community in the United States.
Upon arriving in San Francisco, Lee Dae-Wi reconnected with Ahn Chang-Ho, a fellow independence activist, and soon became involved in various activities to support the independence cause and the welfare of the Korean expatriates in America. He studied theology at Portland Academy and, with the help of Korean American community members, became the first Korean to study history at the University of California.
Leadership in the Korean American Community
While attending the University of California, Lee Dae-Wi became deeply engaged in the Korean American church community, particularly at the San Francisco Korean Church (Sanghang Korean Church), which played a central role in uniting Koreans in the area. His involvement in the church naturally positioned him as a leader within the growing Korean American community.
In addition to his religious activities, Lee Dae-Wi became active in Korean social and political organizations, including the Chinmokhoe (Friendship Society), which later evolved into a nationalist organization, and the Daehan Inguk Minnhoe (Korean National Association). Through these groups, he worked to promote nationalistic ideals and support Korea’s independence from Japanese colonial rule. He also contributed articles to the Shinhan Minbo, the newspaper of the Korean National Association, emphasizing patriotism and encouraging Korean Americans to remain united in their support for the independence movement.
Opposition to Japanese Colonialism and Advocacy for Koreans’ Rights (1910–1913)
When Japan formally annexed Korea in 1910, Lee Dae-Wi was part of a network of activists in the U.S. who organized protests against the forced annexation. He worked as a translator for various petitions and letters opposing the annexation, including a formal letter to the Emperor of Japan and the Korean King, sending them on behalf of the Korean diaspora.
In 1913, Lee Dae-Wi was elected as the chairman of the Daehan Inguk Minnhoe North American regional assembly, where he focused on safeguarding the rights and interests of Koreans living in the U.S. One significant incident occurred when a group of Koreans working in the California town of Hemet picking apricots were forcibly expelled by white workers. During this incident, Lee Dae-Wi discovered that U.S. officials were consulting with the Japanese consulate, prompting him to take direct action.
As chairman, Lee Dae-Wi sent a telegram to the U.S. Secretary of State, advocating for the distinction between Japanese and Korean nationals, asserting that Koreans living in America had arrived before the Japanese annexation and should not be subject to Japanese control. His efforts were successful, and the U.S. government agreed to handle Korean issues separately from Japanese interests, thus protecting the legal status and rights of the Korean community.
Lee Dae-Wi’s advocacy extended to his efforts in helping Korean patriots who had escaped torture in Korea, such as those involved in the 1913 105 Patriots Incident, to gain entry into the United States. His interventions with the U.S. government led to the successful approval of their immigration, helping many Korean independence fighters avoid deportation or imprisonment.
Cultural Advocacy and Korean Language Preservation
Lee Dae-Wi’s deep understanding of the importance of language in preserving national identity led him to develop a Korean-style typewriter in 1915, which significantly advanced Korean-American publishing. This invention helped streamline the printing of newspapers, books, and educational materials for the Korean community in the U.S. He also played an instrumental role in the development of the Mono-type Korean script in 1917, further advancing the printing and publishing capabilities for Korean Americans.
As a firm believer in the importance of preserving the Korean language, Lee Dae-Wi often quoted, “The national language represents the spirit, thoughts, and emotions of a people.” He also advocated for the establishment of Korean language schools and training programs to ensure that Korean Americans maintained their cultural identity and were educated in their heritage.
Advocacy for Korean Independence (1918–1919)
In late 1918, Lee Dae-Wi was part of a group of 39 overseas independence leaders, including key figures like Ahn Chang-Ho, Syngman Rhee, and Park Yong-Man, who signed a declaration calling for the independence of Korea. This declaration was one of the earliest formal statements of the Korean independence movement and served as a precursor to the March 1st Movement of 1919.
In the aftermath of the March 1st Movement, Lee Dae-Wi wrote an article in Shinhan Minbo titled “Success Lies in Cooperation”, urging Korean Americans to unite in their support for the independence movement. His call for solidarity was a response to the suffering of Koreans both in Korea and abroad, and he encouraged Korean Americans to continue raising funds and participating in the independence struggle.
Lee Dae-Wi’s efforts were crucial in the establishment of the Korean National Association as a central institution for Korean Americans, and he served as a commissioner in the Korean Government in Exile (the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea) during its diplomatic efforts in the U.S.
Later Years and Legacy
Lee Dae-Wi continued his work as a pastor at the Sanghang Korean Church and as an active member of the Korean National Association until his death in 1928. His final words, “Are all our compatriots well? I miss them so much, especially the children,” reflect his enduring concern for his people and his homeland.
In recognition of his tireless efforts for Korea’s independence and his work in the Korean American community, Lee Dae-Wi was posthumously awarded the Order of Merit for National Foundation (건국훈장 독립장) by the Republic of Korea in 1995. In 2018, he was also named Independence Activist of the Month by the Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs.
Lee Dae-Wi’s legacy as a key figure in the Korean independence movement in the United States remains vital to understanding the contributions of the first-generation Korean Americans. His leadership in building a solid foundation for the Korean community in North America and his unwavering dedication to Korea’s independence stand as a testament to his vision, determination, and patriotism.
Despite his crucial role in both the Korean independence movement and the establishment of the Korean American community, Lee Dae-Wi remains relatively unknown among many Koreans today. Many key historical sites related to his life and work, such as the Sanghang Korean Church and the Korean National Association Memorial, are still not widely recognized, and it is important that these historical landmarks be better known and more accessible to future generations. Lee Dae-Wi’s contributions and the efforts of other early Korean American activists deserve to be acknowledged and celebrated as vital parts of both Korean and Korean American history.
Uibyeong (Righteous Army)
“Better to Die as a Free Man Than Live as a Slave”
Have you ever heard of the great courage displayed by the unnamed Korean righteous army soldiers who fought against Japanese imperialism over a century ago?
In 1905, Japan, through the Eulsa Treaty, forcefully stripped Korea of its sovereignty over foreign affairs, beginning a brutal campaign of military repression and tyranny against the Korean people. The ruthless oppression by the Japanese imperial forces unleashed an era of unimaginable suffering for the people of Korea.
But amidst this darkness, a quiet yet formidable resistance rose up—the righteous army of Korea. And it was not until 1907 that the world truly saw the courage of these valiant warriors when they were introduced to the world through a powerful image and an interview published in the English-language edition of The Daily Korea News, part of the Daehan Maeil Shinbo. This historic article was based on the firsthand account of Frederick Arthur MacKenzie, a foreign correspondent from the Daily Chronicle in London, who had traveled to Korea to report on the struggles of the Korean people.
In the photograph that accompanied the article, a group of approximately twelve righteous soldiers stood resolute against the backdrop of a mountain, holding rifles and facing the camera. While one soldier wore the uniform of the Korean imperial army, the rest were dressed in worn-out Hanbok—traditional Korean garments—showing the dire straits they were in. The guns they carried were a mix of old, outdated rifles, none of them in perfect working condition, yet their courage stood unyielding.
MacKenzie asked one of the soldiers, “Do you think you can defeat the Japanese Empire?”
A young man, wearing the uniform of the Korean imperial army, looked him straight in the eye and responded without hesitation:
“I know it is nearly impossible to win. We will die here. But that is fine. I would rather die as a free man than live as a slave to Japan!”
In the face of impossible odds and certain death, these nameless warriors chose to fight. To an outsider, such as MacKenzie, their cause might have seemed futile, their challenge foolish. Here they were, fighting the might of the Japanese imperial army, a force that had won victories in the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars, and yet these righteous soldiers had neither proper training nor adequate weapons. Their challenge seemed not just hopeless but tragic.
But MacKenzie saw something that the world was blind to—he saw great courage. He documented the story of these courageous men in his memoir, The Korean Independence Movement, and his words echo through history, revealing the true heart of these warriors:
“The righteous army of Korea were men who had already accepted their death. They had no hope of winning. And yet, when I looked into their eyes, I saw something in them—a radiance. Their eyes sparkled with confidence and their faces held a smile of determination. It was then that I realized my previous thoughts were mistaken. They were not the pitiable ones I had imagined. They were showing their people what patriotism really was.”
MacKenzie goes on to describe how one Japanese official had stated that 20,000 soldiers from the Japanese army had been dispatched to suppress the righteous army, and that nearly half of the Korean Peninsula was in a state of armed rebellion.
He concluded by writing, “The derision of Koreans as ‘cowards’ or as people indifferent to their fate is losing its credibility. The true spirit of the Korean people is now evident to the world.”
So, what do you think courage is?
It is easy to be courageous when victory seems certain, when the circumstances are in your favor, when the path is clear. But what about when defeat is inevitable, when death is the only certainty? True courage is not the courage to fight when victory is assured—it is the courage to fight when there is nothing left to lose. It is the courage to stand up when you know that standing may be the last thing you ever do.
“Better to die as a free man than live as a slave!”
These righteous soldiers, whom MacKenzie met in 1907, chose to die for freedom rather than to live under the yoke of imperial oppression. They are heroes—unsung, unnamed, but undaunted in their love for their country. They fought not for glory, but for liberty. They fought not for themselves, but for the future of their nation, for the hope that someday their children and grandchildren would live in a free land.
The world was privileged to witness the courage of these brave souls, who had no hope of victory, no grand army behind them, and no powerful allies. They fought with nothing but their unshakable resolve and their love for their country. Their story is a testament to the indomitable spirit of the Korean people and the enduring will to fight for independence, no matter the odds.
The struggle they began did not end with their deaths. It inspired generations of Koreans, both at home and abroad, to rise up and continue the fight for freedom. Their sacrifice is the foundation upon which the Republic of Korea was built—a nation born from the blood, sweat, and tears of those who refused to bow to tyranny.
In the face of oppression, in the face of certain death, these righteous soldiers stood tall, their hearts filled with the unyielding spirit of liberty. Today, we honor their memory, for they are the true patriots—the great heroes of our nation.